In the Standard Model, the weak and electromagnetic forces are two aspects of something called the `electroweak force', which is described by the group . Curiously, it turns out that the familiar concept of `electric charge' is less fundamental than the concepts of `weak isospin' and `hypercharge'. The weak isospin of a particle describes how it transforms under , while its hypercharge describes how it transforms under . The electric charge is computed in a funny way from these two!
In the following problems, you will examine how this works.
The full symmetry group of the Standard Model is
We begin by introducing bases for and :
In quantum theory, observables correspond to self-adjoint
operators. Given any unitary representation of
on some Hilbert space, the above basis of
gets mapped by to skew-adjoint operators on that Hilbert space.
Dividing these by we get self-adjoint operators called
the three components of weak isospin: and .
In short:
Similarly, given any unitary representation of
on some Hilbert space, the above basis of
gets mapped by to a skew-adjoint operator.
Dividing this by we get a self-adjoint operator called
hypercharge, . In short:
Digression on History and Terminology
The following stuff is not strictly necessary for doing the homework. But if you want to understand the terms `isospin' and `hypercharge' and that weird factor of , read this!
The group first showed up in physics because it is the double
cover of the rotation group . The matrices
serve as a convenient basis for the Lie algebra because they
satisfy the commutation relations
Later, Heisenberg proposed as a symmetry group for the strong
nuclear force. His idea was that this group would explain a symmetry
between protons and neutrons: both these particles would really be two
states of a single particle called the nucleon, which would
transform under the spin- representation of .
The proton would be the spin-up state:
Still later, Glashow, Weinberg and Salam used as a symmetry group for the weak nuclear force, and called the observables corresponding to the three components of a particle's weak isospin, . There is a close relation between weak isospin and Heisenberg's original isospin: in particular, the isospin of a nucleon is the sum of the weak isospins of the three quarks it is made of. However, weak isospin is now considered to be important for the weak rather than the strong nuclear force.
Similarly, started out being used as a symmetry group for
the electromagnetic force. For each integer
there is a unitary irrep of on
called the charge- irrep. This is given by
The observable corresponding to is called electric charge, and the above equation says that any state of a particle described by the charge- irrep of has electric charge equal to . Using the group this way gives a nice `explanation' of the fact that the electric charge is quantized: the charge of any particle is an integer times some smallest charge. However, it doesn't say what this smallest charge actually is!
For a long time people thought that the electron had the smallest possible charge, so they said the electron has charge 1. Actually they said it has charge : an unfortunate convention which we can blame on Benjamin Franklin, because he was mixed up about which way the electricity flowed in a current. But what do you expect from someone who flies a kite with a key hanging on it during a thunderstorm, to attract lightning bolts? Dumb! But lucky: the next two people to try that experiment were killed.
Much later, people discovered that quarks have electric charges smaller than that of the electron. Measured in units of the electron charge, quark charges are integral multiples of . Mathematically it would be nicest to redefine our units of charge so the smallest possible charge is still , but people are too conservative to do this, so now the smallest charge is taken to be .
Still later, people reused the group as a symmetry group for the electroweak force, and used the term `hypercharge' for the observable corresponding to this new . Since hypercharge is closely related to charge, physicists also measure hypercharge in integral multiples of .
Here's how we accomodate this foolish factor of .
For each number with , there is a unitary
irrep of on called the hypercharge-
irrep. This is given by
Back to Business
Any particle in the Standard Model corresponds to some unitary irrep
of
. This is a unitary rep of both
and of , so we get self-adjoint operators
and on this irrep, corresponding to weak isospin
and hypercharge. The observable electric charge is
related to these by the mystical formula
I'll do an example: consider the left-handed
electron neutrino . As indicated in
the chart at the end of this handout,
this is the first member of the standard basis of the irrep
of
:
In the chart at the end of this handout, the hypercharge-
irrep of is denoted .
As explained in the Digression, the hypercharge operator acts
as multiplication by the number on any vector in this representation.
Since the left-handed electron lives in the
hypercharge- rep, it follows that
Now that we know and for the left-handed electron
neutrino, we can use the magic formula to work out its electric charge:
1. Use this idea to fill out as much of the following chart as you can. If you know enough representation theory you can do it all! It may help to reread the list of conventions in the previous homework on elementary particles.
type of particle eigenvalue of: | I3 | Y | Q |
GAUGE BOSONS | |||
HIGGS BOSON | |||
FIRST GENERATION FERMIONS | |||
Leptons: | |||
Quarks: | |||
SECOND GENERATION FERMIONS | |||
Leptons: | |||
Quarks: | |||
THIRD GENERATION FERMIONS | |||
Leptons: | |||
Quarks: | |||
2. In Problem 1 of the previous homework you may have noticed that for leptons and quarks, the average of the hypercharge of the right-handed ones is equal to the hypercharge of the left-handed one. Use your new-found knowledge to say more about the significance of this fact.
3. What is the sum of the hypercharges of all the fermions in a given generation? To do this right you have to sum over all 16 basis vectors of the fermion rep, e.g. , , , , ,, ,,, ,,, ,,.
4. What is the sum of the eigenvalues of over all the fermions in a given generation?
5. What is the sum of the electric charges of all the fermions in a given generation?
The answers to questions 3-5 are very important in grand unified theories. These are theories where is embedded as a Lie subalgebra of some simple Lie algebra like or : i.e., a Lie algebra with no nontrivial ideals. The fermion rep can only extend to a rep of a simple Lie algebra if the answers to questions 3-5 take a certain special form!
type of particle | irrep | irrep | irrep | irrep |
GAUGE BOSONS | ||||
gluons ( force carriers): | ||||
massless spin-1 | ||||
force carriers: | ||||
massless spin-1 | ||||
force carrier: | ||||
massless spin-1 | ||||
HIGGS BOSON | ||||
Higgs: | ||||
massless spin-0 | ||||
and its antiparticle! | ||||
FIRST GENERATION FERMIONS | ||||
Leptons: | ||||
left-handed electron neutrino and electron: | ||||
left-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed electron neutrino: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed electron: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
and their antiparticles! | ||||
Quarks: | ||||
left-handed up and down quarks: | ||||
left-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed up quark: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed down quark | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
and their antiparticles! | ||||
SECOND GENERATION FERMIONS | ||||
Leptons: | ||||
left-handed mu neutrino and muon: | ||||
left-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed mu neutrino: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed muon: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
and their antiparticles! | ||||
Quarks: | ||||
left-handed charm and strange quarks: | ||||
left-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed charm quark: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed strange quark | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
and their antiparticles! | ||||
THIRD GENERATION FERMIONS | ||||
Leptons: | ||||
left-handed tau neutrino and tau: | ||||
left-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed tau neutrino: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed tau: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
and their antiparticles! | ||||
Quarks: | ||||
left-handed top and bottom quarks: | ||||
left-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed top quark: | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
right-handed bottom quark | ||||
right-handed massless spin-1/2 | ||||
and their antiparticles! |
Next: The
True Internal Symmetry Group of the Standard Model
Previous: Elementary Particles
© 2003 John Baez - all rights reserved.
baez@math.removethis.ucr.andthis.edu